社会主义 

社會主義(英語:socialism)是一種政治社會經濟哲學,包括各種以社會共有英语social ownership生产资料為特點的經濟社會體系英语social system[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]其中,社會共有生產資料可以透过国家拥有集体拥有英语Collective ownership工人自治劳工合作甚至公民持股达成。虽然社会主义种类千千万万,没有一种定义可以概括,[11]但是每一种都认为应该由社会控制生产资料[5][12][13]

社会主义按是否拥有市场可分为两种。[14]不带市场的社会主义将要素市场金钱剔除,资本主义下的价值规律也不復存在,它往往主張政府對經濟的計劃。这类社会主义追求避免资本积累英语Capital accumulation、追求利润造成的浪费、不公平和金融危机[23]相反,所谓市场社会主义强调在社会拥有的企业和资本分配中保留金钱、要素市场甚至利润动机的作用。这些企业的利润可以選擇直接由雇员控制,或者選擇以社会红利的形式发给全社会,以提升社会福利以及促进公共事业的发展。[24][25][26]社会主义计算争论讨论了社会主义内的资源分配方法和可行性——例如有社会主义者认为,资源分配[27]应该基于一个通用的体力劳动指标或者是直接基于劳动时间[28]。作为一项政治运动,社会主义的政治哲学主张从改良主义革命社会主义均有分布。如国家社会主义主张推动生产、分配和交换全方位的国有化来实现社会主义;自由意志社会主义倡导工人传统地控制生产方式,反对国家权力来进行管理;民主社会主义则透过民主化进程来谋求建立社会主义。现代社会主义理论始于19世纪知识分子工人阶级发起的批判工业化私有财产政治运动。早期的空想社会主义者,比如罗伯特·欧文曾试图建立一个自给自足并脱离资本主义社会的公社;而圣西门则创造了名词socialisme,提倡技术官僚与计划工业的应用。[29]马克思恩格斯共同设计创造了一个除去导致不合格与周期性生产过剩的无政府状态和资本主义生产的理想的社会制度[30][31]。一个地区,谁拥有所有货币的百分之几,就相当于能拥有所有物质的百分之几。这也是通货膨胀与紧缩的原因。谁恶意抬高物价多赚百分之几,这就是资本主义剥削原理。马克思等人的初衷就是要消灭这种不公平的剥削制度。以上所述的资本主义剥削方式让资本家不劳而获地积累大量不应得的财富,也导致资本主义国家富者越富,穷者越穷。贫富差距越来越大。这种资本主义剥削制度只对少数资本家有益,而对大部分民众无益,但资本主义国家当局支持这种制度,这就形成了资产阶级专政。其执政的政党也就成为了资产阶级政党,这是其阶级性质。

  1. ^ Upton Sinclair, Upton. Upton Sinclair's: A Monthly Magazine: for Social Justice, by Peaceful Means If Possible. 1 January 1918 [2018-04-24]. (原始内容存档于2019-05-02). Socialism, you see, is a bird with two wings. The definition is 'social ownership and democratic control of the instruments and means of production.' 
  2. ^ Nove, Alec. Socialism. New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, Second Edition (2008). [2013-02-18]. (原始内容存档于2016-05-24). A society may be defined as socialist if the major part of the means of production of goods and services is in some sense socially owned and operated, by state, socialised or cooperative enterprises. The practical issues of socialism comprise the relationships between management and workforce within the enterprise, the interrelationships between production units (plan versus markets), and, if the state owns and operates any part of the economy, who controls it and how. 
  3. ^ Rosser, Mariana V.; J Barkley Jr. Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy. MIT Press. 23 July 2003: 53. ISBN 978-0262182348. Socialism is an economic system characterised by state or collective ownership of the means of production, land, and capital. 
  4. ^ "What else does a socialist economic system involve? Those who favor socialism generally speak of social ownership, social control, or socialization of the means of production as the distinctive positive feature of a socialist economic system" N. Scott Arnold. The Philosophy and Economics of Market Socialism : A Critical Study. Oxford University Press. 1998. p. 8
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Busky, Donald F. Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Praeger. 20 July 2000: 2. ISBN 978-0275968861. Socialism may be defined as movements for social ownership and control of the economy. It is this idea that is the common element found in the many forms of socialism. 
  6. ^ Bertrand Badie; Dirk Berg-Schlosser; Leonardo Morlino. International Encyclopedia of Political Science. SAGE Publications, Inc. 2011: 2456. ISBN 978-1412959636. Socialist systems are those regimes based on the economic and political theory of socialism, which advocates public ownership and cooperative management of the means of production and allocation of resources. 
  7. ^ Zimbalist, Sherman and Brown, Andrew, Howard J. and Stuart. Comparing Economic Systems: A Political-Economic Approach. Harcourt College Pub. October 1988: 7. ISBN 978-0155124035. Pure socialism is defined as a system wherein all of the means of production are owned and run by the government and/or cooperative, nonprofit groups. 
  8. ^ Brus, Wlodzimierz. The Economics and Politics of Socialism. Routledge. 5 November 2015: 87. ISBN 978-0415866477. This alteration in the relationship between economy and politics is evident in the very definition of a socialist economic system. The basic characteristic of such a system is generally reckoned to be the predominance of the social ownership of the means of production. 
  9. ^ Michie, Jonathan. Readers Guide to the Social Sciences. Routledge. 1 January 2001: 1516. ISBN 978-1579580919. Just as private ownership defines capitalism, social ownership defines socialism. The essential characteristic of socialism in theory is that it destroys social hierarchies, and therefore leads to a politically and economically egalitarian society. Two closely related consequences follow. First, every individual is entitled to an equal ownership share that earns an aliquot part of the total social dividend…Second, in order to eliminate social hierarchy in the workplace, enterprises are run by those employed, and not by the representatives of private or state capital. Thus, the well-known historical tendency of the divorce between ownership and management is brought to an end. The society – i.e. every individual equally – owns capital and those who work are entitled to manage their own economic affairs. 
  10. ^ "2. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) any of various social or political theories or movements in which the common welfare is to be achieved through the establishment of a socialist economic system" "Socialism" at The Free dictionary页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆
  11. ^ Lamb & Docherty 2006,第1頁
  12. ^ Arnold, Scott. The Philosophy and Economics of Market Socialism: A Critical Study. Oxford University Press. 1994: 7–8. ISBN 978-0195088274. This term is harder to define, since socialists disagree among themselves about what socialism ‘really is.’ It would seem that everyone (socialists and nonsocialists alike) could at least agree that it is not a system in which there is widespread private ownership of the means of production…To be a socialist is not just to believe in certain ends, goals, values, or ideals. It also requires a belief in a certain institutional means to achieve those ends; whatever that may mean in positive terms, it certainly presupposes, at a minimum, the belief that these ends and values cannot be achieved in an economic system in which there is widespread private ownership of the means of production…Those who favor socialism generally speak of social ownership, social control, or socialization of the means of production as the distinctive positive feature of a socialist economic system. 
  13. ^ Hastings, Mason and Pyper, Adrian, Alistair and Hugh. The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought. Oxford University Press. 21 December 2000: 677. ISBN 978-0198600244. Socialists have always recognized that there are many possible forms of social ownership of which co-operative ownership is one...Nevertheless, socialism has throughout its history been inseparable from some form of common ownership. By its very nature it involves the abolition of private ownership of capital; bringing the means of production, distribution, and exchange into public ownership and control is central to its philosophy. It is difficult to see how it can survive, in theory or practice, without this central idea. 
  14. ^ Kolb, Robert. Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society, First Edition. SAGE Publications, Inc. 19 October 2007: 1345. ISBN 978-1412916523. There are many forms of socialism, all of which eliminate private ownership of capital and replace it with collective ownership. These many forms, all focused on advancing distributive justice for long-term social welfare, can be divided into two broad types of socialism: nonmarket and market. 
  15. ^ Bockman, Johanna. Markets in the name of Socialism: The Left-Wing origins of Neoliberalism. Stanford University Press. 2011: 20. ISBN 978-0-8047-7566-3. socialism would function without capitalist economic categories – such as money, prices, interest, profits and rent – and thus would function according to laws other than those described by current economic science. While some socialists recognised the need for money and prices at least during the transition from capitalism to socialism, socialists more commonly believed that the socialist economy would soon administratively mobilise the economy in physical units without the use of prices or money. 
  16. ^ Steele, David Ramsay. From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. Open Court. September 1999: 175–77. ISBN 978-0875484495. Especially before the 1930s, many socialists and anti-socialists implicitly accepted some form of the following for the incompatibility of state-owned industry and factor markets. A market transaction is an exchange of property titles between two independent transactors. Thus internal market exchanges cease when all of industry is brought into the ownership of a single entity, whether the state or some other organization...the discussion applies equally to any form of social or community ownership, where the owning entity is conceived as a single organization or administration. 
  17. ^ Is Socialism Dead? A Comment on Market Socialism and Basic Income Capitalism, by Arneson, Richard J. 1992. Ethics, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 485–511. April 1992: "Marxian socialism is often identified with the call to organize economic activity on a nonmarket basis."
  18. ^ Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists, by Schweickart, David; Lawler, James; Ticktin, Hillel; Ollman, Bertell. 1998. From "The Difference Between Marxism and Market Socialism" (pp. 61–63): "More fundamentally, a socialist society must be one in which the economy is run on the principle of the direct satisfaction of human needs...Exchange-value, prices and so money are goals in themselves in a capitalist society or in any market. There is no necessary connection between the accumulation of capital or sums of money and human welfare. Under conditions of backwardness, the spur of money and the accumulation of wealth has led to a massive growth in industry and technology ... It seems an odd argument to say that a capitalist will only be efficient in producing use-value of a good quality when trying to make more money than the next capitalist. It would seem easier to rely on the planning of use-values in a rational way, which because there is no duplication, would be produced more cheaply and be of a higher quality."
  19. ^ The Economics of Feasible Socialism Revisited, by Nove, Alexander. 1991. p. 13: "Under socialism, by definition, it (private property and factor markets) would be eliminated. There would then be something like ‘scientific management’, ‘the science of socially organized production’, but it would not be economics."
  20. ^ Kotz, David M. Socialism and Capitalism: Are They Qualitatively Different Socioeconomic Systems? (PDF). University of Massachusetts. [19 February 2011]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2013-06-04).  "This understanding of socialism was held not just by revolutionary Marxist socialists but also by evolutionary socialists, Christian socialists, and even anarchists. At that time, there was also wide agreement about the basic institutions of the future socialist system: public ownership instead of private ownership of the means of production, economic planning instead of market forces, production for use instead of for profit."
  21. ^ Toward a Socialism for the Future, in the Wake of the Demise of the Socialism of the Past, by Weisskopf, Thomas E. 1992. Review of Radical Political Economics, Vol. 24, No. 3-4, p. 2: "Socialism has historically been committed to the improvement of people's material standards of living. Indeed, in earlier days many socialists saw the promotion of improving material living standards as the primary basis for socialism's claim to superiority over capitalism, for socialism was to overcome the irrationality and inefficiency seen as endemic to a capitalist system of economic organization."
  22. ^ Prychito, David L. Markets, Planning, and Democracy: Essays After the Collapse of Communism. Edward Elgar Publishing. 31 July 2002: 12. ISBN 978-1840645194. Socialism is a system based upon de facto public or social ownership of the means of production, the abolition of a hierarchical division of labor in the enterprise, a consciously organized social division of labor. Under socialism, money, competitive pricing, and profit-loss accounting would be destroyed. 
  23. ^ [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]
  24. ^ Social Dividend versus Basic Income Guarantee in Market Socialism, by Marangos, John. 2004. International Journal of Political Economy, vol. 34, no. 3, Fall 2004.
  25. ^ O'Hara, Phillip. Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2. Routledge. September 2000: 71. ISBN 978-0415241878. Market socialism is the general designation for a number of models of economic systems. On the one hand, the market mechanism is utilized to distribute economic output, to organize production and to allocate factor inputs. On the other hand, the economic surplus accrues to society at large rather than to a class of private (capitalist) owners, through some form of collective, public or social ownership of capital. 
  26. ^ Pierson, Christopher. Socialism After Communism: The New Market Socialism. Pennsylvania State Univ Press. August 1995: 96. ISBN 978-0271014784. At the heart of the market socialist model is the abolition of the large-scale private ownership of capital and its replacement by some form of ‘social ownership’. Even the most conservative accounts of market socialism insist that this abolition of large-scale holdings of private capital is essential. This requirement is fully consistent with the market socialists’ general claim that the vices of market capitalism lie not with the institutions of the market but with (the consequences of) the private ownership of capital... 
  27. ^ Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists, by Schweickart, David; Lawler, James; Ticktin, Hillel; Ollman, Bertell. 1998. From "The Difference Between Marxism and Market Socialism" (P.61-63): "More fundamentally, a socialist society must be one in which the economy is run on the principle of the direct satisfaction of human needs...Exchange-value, prices and so money are goals in themselves in a capitalist society or in any market. There is no necessary connection between the accumulation of capital or sums of money and human welfare. Under conditions of backwardness, the spur of money and the accumulation of wealth has led to a massive growth in industry and technology ... It seems an odd argument to say that a capitalist will only be efficient in producing use-value of a good quality when trying to make more money than the next capitalist. It would seem easier to rely on the planning of use-values in a rational way, which because there is no duplication, would be produced more cheaply and be of a higher quality."
  28. ^ Bockman, Johanna. Markets in the name of Socialism: The Left-Wing origins of Neoliberalism. Stanford University Press. 2011. ISBN 978-0-8047-7566-3. 
  29. ^ Adam Smith. Fsmitha.com. [2010-06-02]. (原始内容存档于2019-06-17). 
  30. ^ Socialism: Utopian and Scientific [社会主义:从空想到科学的发展]. 马克思主义文库. [2011-02-20]. (原始内容存档于2020-05-09). 
  31. ^ 恩格斯. skid Materialism. 社会主义:从空想到科学的发展. C.H. Kerr. 1910: 92–11. 



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