时间轴从左到右。 科学 (英語:science ,词源为拉丁語 :scientia ,意为“知识”)[1] 是一种系统性的知識體系,它积累、组织並可檢驗有关于万物的解释 、预测 [2] [a] 。科学强调预测结果的具体性、可证伪性 ,这有别于空泛的哲学。科学並不等同于寻求绝对无误的真理,而是在现有基础上,摸索式地不断接近真理。故科学的发展史就是一部人类对宇宙的认识偏差的纠正史。科学的源头最早可追溯到公元前3500年至前3000年的古埃及 、两河流域 [3] [4] 。这2種文明在数学 、天文 、医学 方面的成就传入并塑造古典时代 希腊 自然哲学 ,后者正式尝试以自然原因来解释物质世界 中的事件[3] [4] 。西罗马帝国倾覆 后,在中世纪 的前几个世纪(公元400年至1000年)中,有关古希腊人的世界观念 的知识在西欧 渐渐被遗忘[5] ,但却在伊斯兰黄金时代 穆斯林世界 中得以保存下来[6] 。10世纪到13世纪,西欧找回古希腊的著作 并吸納伊斯兰学者的研究 ,自然哲学就此复活[5] [7] ,并且在接下來的始于16世纪的科学革命 [8] 中转型,其间的新观念和新发现 脱离古希腊观念 、传统之窠臼[9] [10] [11] [12] 。科学方法 迅速在获取知识方面起到更大作用,但是科学的制度化、职业化 卻直至19世纪 才开始成型[13] [14] [15] 。科学原仅指对自然 现象之规律的探索、总结,但人文学科 也越来越多地被冠以“科学”之名。现代科学 一般说来可划分为3大分支 :形式科学 (如逻辑 、数学 、理论计算机科学 ),研究抽象概念,自然科学 (如生物学 、化学 、物理学 、天文学 ),在最宽泛的意义上研究自然,社会科学 (如经济学 、心理学 、社会学 、地理學 ),研究个体、社会。然而,对于形式科学是否确实屬於某一类科学存在不同意见[16] [17] ,因为其并不依赖经验证据 [18] 。而运用既有科学知识以达成实用目的的学科,如工程学 、医学,则被归为应用科学 [19] [20] [21] [22] 。科学以研究 为基础,而研究通常是在学术 、研究机构 、政府机构 、公司 中进行。科学研究的实际影响使得科学政策 被制订出来,以求予以科学界影響,促使商业产品 、武器 、医疗卫生 、环境保护 获得优先发展。
^ Harper, Douglas. science . Online Etymology Dictionary . [September 20, 2014] .
^ Wilson, E.O. The natural sciences. Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge Reprint. New York, New York: Vintage. 1999: 49 –71. ISBN 978-0-679-76867-8 .
^ 3.0 3.1 Lindberg, David C. Science before the Greeks. The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context Second. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2007: 1 –27. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7 .
^ 4.0 4.1 Grant, Edward. Ancient Egypt to Plato. A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century First. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. 2007: 1 –26. ISBN 978-052-1-68957-1 .
^ 5.0 5.1 Lindberg, David C. The revival of learning in the West. The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context Second. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2007: 193 –224. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7 .
^ Lindberg, David C. Islamic science. The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context Second. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2007: 163 –92. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7 .
^ Lindberg, David C. The recovery and assimilation of Geek and Islamic science. The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context 2nd. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2007: 225 –53. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7 .
^ Principe, Lawrence M. Introduction. Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction First. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. 2011: 1–3. ISBN 978-0-199-56741-6 .
^ Lindberg, David C. Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch. David C. Lindberg; Robert S. Westman (编). Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution First. Chicago, Illinois: Cambridge University Press. 1990: 1–26. ISBN 978-0-521-34262-9 .
^ Lindberg, David C. The legacy of ancient and medieval science. The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context 2nd. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2007: 357 –368. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7 .
^ Del Soldato, Eva. Zalta, Edward N. , 编. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Fall 2016. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2016 [2019-05-16 ] . (原始内容存档 于2019-12-11).
^ Grant, Edward. Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century. A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century First. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. 2007: 274 –322. ISBN 978-052-1-68957-1 .
^ Cahan, David (编). From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-226-08928-7 .
^ The Oxford English Dictionary dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834.
^ 引证错误:没有为名为Lightman 19th
的参考文献提供内容
^ Bishop, Alan. Environmental activities and mathematical culture . Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education. Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 1991: 20–59 [2019-05-16 ] . ISBN 978-0-792-31270-3 . (原始内容存档 于2020-12-25).
^ Bunge, Mario. The Scientific Approach. Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory 1 revised. New York, New York: Routledge. 1998: 3–50. ISBN 978-0-765-80413-6 .
^ Fetzer, James H. Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems. Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines 1st. Newcastle, United Kingdom: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 2013: 271–308. ISBN 978-1-443-81946-6 .
^ Fischer, M.R.; Fabry, G. Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education . GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung. 2014, 31 (2): Doc24. PMC 4027809 . PMID 24872859 . doi:10.3205/zma000916 .
^ Abraham, Reem Rachel. Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students. Advances in Physiology Education. 2004, 28 (3): 102–04. PMID 15319191 . doi:10.1152/advan.00001.2004 .
^ Sinclair, Marius. On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods . The International Journal of Engineering Education. [2019-05-16 ] . (原始内容存档 于2017-11-15).
^ Engineering Technology :: Engineering Technology :: Purdue School of Engineering and Technology, IUPUI . www.engr.iupui.edu. [2018-09-07 ] . (原始内容 存档于2018-09-03).
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