宇宙,以随时间变动的一系列圆盘状“切片”表示,时间轴从左到右。
科学(英語:science,词源为拉丁語:scientia,意为“知识”)[1]是一种系统性的知識體系,它积累和组织並可檢驗有关于万物的解释和预测[2][a]。科学强调预测结果的具体性和可证伪性,这有别于空泛的哲学。科学也不等同于寻求绝对无误的真理,而是在现有基础上,摸索式地不断接近真理。故科学的发展史就是一部人类对宇宙的认识偏差的纠正史。
科学的源头最早可追溯到约公元前3500年至前3000年的古埃及和两河流域[3][4]。这两个文明在数学、天文、医学方面的成就传入并塑造了古典时代的希腊自然哲学,后者正式尝试以自然原因来解释物质世界中的事件[3][4]。西罗马帝国倾覆后,在中世纪的头几个世纪(约公元400年至1000年)中,有关古希腊人的世界观念的知识在西欧渐渐被遗忘[5],但却在伊斯兰黄金时代的穆斯林世界中得以保存下来[6]。10世纪到13世纪,西欧找回了古希腊的著作并吸收了伊斯兰学者的研究,自然哲学就此复活[5][7],并且接下来在始于16世纪的科学革命[8]中转型,其间的新观念和新发现脱离了古希腊观念和传统之窠臼[9][10][11][12]。科学方法迅速在获取知识方面起到更大作用,不过科学的制度化和职业化还是要等到19世纪才开始成型[13][14][15]。
科学原仅指对自然现象之规律的探索与总结,但人文学科也越来越多地被冠以“科学”之名。现代科学一般说来可划分为三大分支:形式科学(如逻辑、数学、理论计算机科学),研究抽象概念;自然科学(如生物学、化学、物理学、天文学),在最宽泛的意义上研究自然;以及社会科学(如经济学、心理学、社会学、地理學),研究个体与社会。不过,对于形式科学能否确实算作一类科学存在不同意见[16][17],因为其并不依赖经验证据[18]。而运用既有科学知识以达成实用目的的学科,如工程学和医学,则被归为应用科学[19][20][21][22]。
科学以研究为基础,而研究通常是在学术和研究机构、以及政府机构和公司中进行。科学研究的实际影响使得科学政策被制订出来,以求施影响于科学界,促使商业产品、武器、医疗卫生以及环境保护获得优先发展。
- ^ Harper, Douglas. science. Online Etymology Dictionary. [September 20, 2014].
- ^ Wilson, E.O. The natural sciences. Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge Reprint. New York, New York: Vintage. 1999: 49–71. ISBN 978-0-679-76867-8.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 Lindberg, David C. Science before the Greeks. The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context Second. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2007: 1–27. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7.
- ^ 4.0 4.1 Grant, Edward. Ancient Egypt to Plato. A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century First. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. 2007: 1–26. ISBN 978-052-1-68957-1.
- ^ 5.0 5.1 Lindberg, David C. The revival of learning in the West. The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context Second. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2007: 193–224. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7.
- ^ Lindberg, David C. Islamic science. The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context Second. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2007: 163–92. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7.
- ^ Lindberg, David C. The recovery and assimilation of Geek and Islamic science. The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context 2nd. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2007: 225–53. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7.
- ^ Principe, Lawrence M. Introduction. Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction First. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. 2011: 1–3. ISBN 978-0-199-56741-6.
- ^ Lindberg, David C. Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch. David C. Lindberg; Robert S. Westman (编). Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution First. Chicago, Illinois: Cambridge University Press. 1990: 1–26. ISBN 978-0-521-34262-9.
- ^ Lindberg, David C. The legacy of ancient and medieval science. The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context 2nd. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2007: 357–368. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7.
- ^ Del Soldato, Eva. Zalta, Edward N. , 编. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Fall 2016. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2016 [2019-05-16]. (原始内容存档于2019-12-11).
- ^ Grant, Edward. Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century. A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century First. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. 2007: 274–322. ISBN 978-052-1-68957-1.
- ^ Cahan, David (编). From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-226-08928-7.
- ^ The Oxford English Dictionary dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834.
- ^ 引用错误:没有为名为
Lightman 19th
的参考文献提供内容
- ^ Bishop, Alan. Environmental activities and mathematical culture. Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education. Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 1991: 20–59 [2019-05-16]. ISBN 978-0-792-31270-3. (原始内容存档于2020-12-25).
- ^ Bunge, Mario. The Scientific Approach. Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory 1 revised. New York, New York: Routledge. 1998: 3–50. ISBN 978-0-765-80413-6.
- ^ Fetzer, James H. Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems. Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines 1st. Newcastle, United Kingdom: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 2013: 271–308. ISBN 978-1-443-81946-6.
- ^ Fischer, M.R.; Fabry, G. Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education. GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung. 2014, 31 (2): Doc24. PMC 4027809
. PMID 24872859. doi:10.3205/zma000916.
- ^ Abraham, Reem Rachel. Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students. Advances in Physiology Education. 2004, 28 (3): 102–04. PMID 15319191. doi:10.1152/advan.00001.2004.
- ^ Sinclair, Marius. On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods. The International Journal of Engineering Education. [2019-05-16]. (原始内容存档于2017-11-15).
- ^ Engineering Technology :: Engineering Technology :: Purdue School of Engineering and Technology, IUPUI. www.engr.iupui.edu. [2018-09-07]. (原始内容存档于2018-09-03).
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